Evidence and Further Reading

Ministry of Justice 
Official Statistics in Development: Estimates of children with a parent in prison
July 2024

According to the official statistics published in July 2024 by the Ministry of Justice (MoJ) children with a parent in prison are seen as a ‘hidden population’ with many not aware of the full scale of the number of children with a parent in prison. The MoJ’s research estimates that from October 2012 to October 2022 there were 192,912 children in the UK with a parent in prison. It is unclear where statutory responsibility lies to support these children, as data is dispersed between the MoJ, Department for Education (DfE), and the Department for Health and Social Care (DHSC). Without clear recognition of children and this data they are more likely to remain unnoticed and unsupported. 

Ministry of Justice 
Social contact in prison: April 2019 to June 2024
December 2025

Research by MoJ tells us that in June 2024, 33% of prisoners had face to face visits, since April 2023, 9% had video calls, and in June 2024, 84% made phone calls to stay in touch with family members. This report asserts the importance of family contact on prisoners’ mental health, citing further research that focuses on mothers in prison and the significant impact that being away from their children can have on their wellbeing. (page. 3)

Pact
Serving a Hidden Sentence: The financial and emotional impact of a loved-one’s imprisonment 
October 2023

In October 2023 Pact released research highlighting how imprisonment affects the families of prisoners in their report ‘Serving a Hidden Sentence: The Financial and Emotional Impact of a Loved One’s Imprisonment.’ The families interviewed in focus groups, and a survey of 164 respondents express that they experience financial hardship, emotional distress, and a strong social stigma, despite not having committed a crime themselves. While their loved ones are in prison, they too are serving a ‘hidden service’ alongside them. 

Pact’s research tells us that 38% of respondents spend a quarter or more of their monthly income supporting a loved one during their time in prison, for costs such as phone calls, clothing, and travel for visits, which are often far from their homes when prisoners are held in other parts of the country. This is only exacerbated when factoring in the loss of one half of a dual income household, increasing the strain on affording basic necessities like food, household bills, social activities, and transport. Help with prison visits schemes are offered, however access to and awareness of these is limited, and many families state that reimbursements and eligibility thresholds do not reflect today’s rising cost of living.

The emotional and social effects of having a loved one in prison are not to be ignored, with 83% of those interviewed reporting worse mental health, and 71% with worse physical health since the start of imprisonment, due to the increased shame and stigma they feel in social situations. Several families note they are treated with disrespect by prison staff, contributing to the feeling of anxiety and loneliness. The children of those in prison face increased risks to their mental health, stability in school and social settings, and their long-term outcomes. This is increased when mothers are imprisoned, as they are more likely to be the primary caregiver, adding confusion to particularly young children who don’t understand why their mothers are not at home. 

Pact’s recommendations include keeping prisoners geographically closer to their families and assessing the impact of a prison move on children. Additionally, schools and nurseries should have readily available guidance regarding the potential impact of imprisonment upon family members and children, including the impact on their physical and mental health. 

Newcastle University, University of Strathclyde, University of Oxford, Families Outside, and Nepacs
Naomi Griffin, Lisa Crowe, Nancy Loucks, Shona Minson, Tracy Shildrick, Tina Young, Steph Scott
‘At Least I Get to Visit Him, That's All That Matters’: Maintaining Contact with a Family Member in Prison, Developing a Child-Centred Framework for Change
March 2026

This project by academics at universities in England and Scotland and two voluntary sector organisations centres the voices of children who have experienced familial imprisonment, through one-to-one interviews every three months between May 2022 and March 2025. Each child had a family member in prison at the time of interviewing, and the findings were used to develop a rights-based framework for prison visits. Three intersecting themes were uncovered by the research: navigating complex adult systems; distress, grief, and trauma; acceptance, normalisation, and coping methods, and were utilised to co-produce a child-centred framework for social visits based on the priorities of the children themselves. These are called the ‘Three C’s’: Child Centred, Consistent, and Compassionate. Working with a youth board of children and young people was imperative to the development of the Three C’s, and the youth board was heavily involved in sense checking as well as the formation of a campaign video. 

The loss of a parent to imprisonment can be a similar feeling to a bereavement, with symptoms of PTSD common in both losses. The process of loss to children of imprisoned parents is complex and confusing, as despite the parent still being alive, there has been a significant change to the availability of their physical and emotional selves. There is a lack of public recognition and support for this kind of loss, similar to that of a bereavement, in the sense that people are unsure what to say to children experiencing trauma. Often saying nothing at all can deepen feelings of isolation, loneliness, and shame. 

The children interviewed for this project expressed a desire for more frequent visits, as knowing where their family member is and that they are safe allows children to relax. The children recognised parts of the visiting experience made them anxious or upset, such as loud noises, waiting times, having to visit during school, a lack of privacy, adult language, and having to travel far distances. They are increasingly aware of stereotypes about prisoners and have seen negative representations of prisons in media. What colours different prisoners wear based on their confinement level is visible to children and contributes to a tense environment. Those interviewed much preferred the specific ‘family and child’ visits, or those held at visitor centres by third party organisations compared to the standard visits. However, visits are different across all prisons, and rules differ between locations; causing more confusion for children and young people if their family member is moved elsewhere. 

Many of the children and young people in the study have experienced shame at their family member being in prison and have concealed the fact from anyone outside their immediate family and justice system. This has led to feelings of stress, anxiety, and guilt due to lying about their family circumstances. Several young people feel their emotions would be a burden on their family members at home, who are already handling their own wellbeing, so they keep their feelings to themselves. Children and young people agree that schools would be the best place to provide support, however teachers are often uninformed or there is no capacity to help. 

The recommendations of the children and young people who were interviewed for this project have been summarised into a ‘Manifesto for Change’: 

• Child-centred contact and visits that are welcoming, relaxed, conducive to bonding and have things to do for all ages. Visits designed to centralise the needs of children will be accessible and beneficial to all, subsequently improving the visiting experience for everyone.
• A more relaxed experience with friendly staff, comfortable chairs, better food and drink, and more colourful decoration; toys, books and (video) games that are of good quality and working properly.
• Timings of visits that are suited to the need of visitors (taking into account public transport timings, school and work).
• An increase in the number of family days/children's visits and other opportunities for bonding with activities (e.g. homework clubs), within and outside of the prison.
• Reduced distances that families have to travel for visits by locating people close to their families.
• Reduced costs of visiting as well as providing consistently available financial support for families to support visiting.
• Free phone calls (for mobile phones and landlines) to promote family bonding and contact.
• Clearer and more welcoming processes and procedures.
• Clearer and consistent rules and attitudes within and between prison sites.
• Support and information throughout the custodial journey for children and young people experiencing familial imprisonment that is both consistent and age-appropriate to help them to understand the process and to allow space for questions and concerns to be raised.
• Greater care and compassion from all who work within the prison system towards families of people in prison, using a child-centred approach to visits as well as contact with the system.
• Training to increase awareness and understanding of what children and young people with an imprisoned family member go through, the impact that contact with the system has on them, and the positive impact that kindness and understanding from professionals can have on their experience.
• Greater recognition and understanding for the complex impact that familial imprisonment has on children and young people from all professionals who work with them.
• Greater and consistent support for children experiencing familial imprisonment that is tailored to individual circumstances and needs.
• Greater funding for charities that support the children and families of imprisoned people to increase their vital experienced work.
• Greater provision of targeted youth groups to support children who are touched by the criminal justice system to target isolation, shame and stigma.

BMJ Paediatrics Open
Sarah Beresford, Nancy Loucks, Ben Raikes 
The health impact on children affected by parental imprisonment 
January 2020

This report by BMJ Paediatrics emphasises the effect that Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) can have on a child’s development, health, and mental wellbeing. Imprisonment of a family member is an ACE, and the more ACEs a child is exposed to, the more likely it is their health will be negatively affected. Those with a higher exposure to ACEs are more likely to develop harmful behaviours and habits such as drinking, smoking, and drug use, which in turn can lead to health problems such as diabetes, cancers, heart failure, and the development or worsening of mental health conditions. 

COPING, a major European child-centred study investigated the mental health needs of children with parents in prison and examined their resilience skills and coping strategies. They concluded that these children are at a greater risk of mental illness, low self-esteem, post traumatic stress disorder, and issues with sleep. In the UK portion of the study, children were in need of counselling, and while these services exist, they are not always targeted towards children facing the specific issue of parental imprisonment. The services are uncoordinated, with long waiting lists, and fluctuating levels of success. Children and their families are often reluctant to talk about their feelings due to the ongoing shame and stigma felt as a result of having a parent in prison, leading to a mistrust of professional health services. Familiar health professionals like GP’s and nurses are well placed to sign post families to further support services.  

Some studies suggest that children of prisoners are more likely to end up in the criminal justice system as adults, yet BMJ’s report stresses the importance of understanding that criminality is not an infectious disease that can be passed on. Rather it is a grief experienced by children that is exacerbated by trauma, shame, and limitations like a loss of income and housing, that leads to doubt and mistrust of authority. Professionals cannot let parental imprisonment define the children they look after, instead looking at the potential children have, and not the problems they face. 

Pact
Andy Keen-Downs, Aimee Hutchinson, Laura Beesley
Identifying children affected by parental imprisonment: Recommendations from Pact
April 2025

This paper by Pact aims to outline recommendations to safeguard children who are at risk of harm and stigmatisation due to having a parent in prison. The need for this paper came about due to polarising messaging that children with a parent in prison are ‘future offenders’ rather than just children facing hardship, and whether children should be automatically identified to professionals when their parent is sentenced to prison time. Each child and their family members have their own views on this topic, and several have fed back that they do not want to be labelled, and that while they do want someone supportive to talk to, they do not want to be a source of gossip. 

This report cites research carried out by the Welsh government that found that nine out of ten young people would welcome schools being told automatically when a parent goes to prison, and would find a well-informed, caring adult helpful to talk to abut what they are facing. However, young people also emphasised the need for privacy and discretion.

The idea that children with parents in prison is highly debated, and as referenced earlier in this section, the effect of parental imprisonment on a child’s mental, physical, and social health can be detrimental, leading to a number of negative risks that children with no experience of the justice system are less likely to face. In this report, Pact is clear that ‘intergenerational offending’ is considered as an “increased risk, rather than a predetermined path.”

Further in-depth recommendations can be found within the full paper.