Girls involved in youth violence: Key findings and recommendations

This research explores the situation facing local councils and partners around girls and young women involved in youth violence, primarily as perpetrators. Despite girls accounting for 13 per cent of proven youth offences in 2022, their involvement in violence remains relatively invisible and support services are rarely specifically catered to girls and young women. There are higher rates of arrest and criminalisation of Black and ethnic minority young women compared to white young women due to racialised stereotypes in relation to crime.

The research primarily uses the term ‘involved in violence’ rather than ‘perpetrators of violence’ to avoid labelling girls as ‘perpetrators’. The research instead explores the complex circumstances that led to girls becoming violent and/or involved with violent peer groups or gangs.

Methodology

This rapid review was commissioned by the Local Government Association (LGA) and undertaken by ClearView Research (CVR). The methodology comprised of the following key aspects:

• Lived experience participatory approach: The research was co-created with a group of six young women with lived experience of involvement in violence who took part in three workshops.
• Literature review: A literature review was conducted to pull together relevant UK-based literature published within the last 10 years.
• A focus group and interviews with relevant local council practitioners and partner organisations.

Due to the small sample size for this study, all findings must be taken in context and are not generalisable. 

Trends observed by local councils

• Increase in assaults on frontline workers: A rise in assaults on police officers, ambulance, and social workers was reported by several local councils. This is attributed to girls’ feelings of being let down and re-traumatised by interactions with these services.
• Low-level crime and violence: Reported common offences among girls include shoplifting, common assault, and Actual Bodily Harm (ABH), with serious violence considered to be rare.
• Gang involvement and criminal exploitation: Girls are perceived to be involved in gang activities like drug transportation and selling drugs in county lines but often go undetected due to gender stereotyping. Instances of girls firstly being exploited by gang members and then exploiting others as a survival strategy were noted.
• Joint enterprise and exploitation: Councils reported cases where girls are implicated in serious violence through manipulation by male peers to lure boys or men into locations where they would be attacked by other boys.
• Peer group violence: Peer-on-peer violence within school and community settings was reported by participants, with instances often being filmed and shared on social media. Violence can be a means for girls to gain credibility, social acceptance and establish their identity within peer groups. 

Perceptions of root causes and drivers

• Childhood trauma: It was reported that many girls involved in violence have Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs). In particular, experiences of sexual and domestic abuse in childhood were highlighted as common experiences. Childhood trauma was understood by practitioners as the basis for violent responses to perceived threats, as well as vulnerability to exploitative relationships.
• Poverty and cost-of-living: Economic deprivation and social isolation, accelerated by the cost-of-living crisis and the Covid-19 pandemic, were considered factors contributing to a perceived increase in girls’ involvement in violence. 
• Negative experiences of authority: It was reported that experiences of authority figures such as police and social workers as punitive rather than supportive can lead girls and young women to mistrust agencies. This sense of mistrust is considered an important driver both for the increase in attacks on frontline workers and vulnerability to criminal exploitation.
• School experiences: It was reported that disciplinary actions leading to school exclusions can heighten the risk of involvement in violence.
• The care system: In some cases, unstable care placements limit the ability to process ACEs healthily, contributing to the ongoing trauma which often underpins girls’ involvement in violence.

Intersectionality in girls' involvement in youth violence

It was reported that gendered experiences and stereotypes intersect with additional aspects of identity to shape the life experiences and trajectories of girls who become involved or/exploited through youth violence, as well as the ways in which services respond. In particular, the following themes were noted:

• Race: It was consistently reported that Black girls involved in violence often face adultification bias, resulting in harsher punishments and less safeguarding.
• Culture: Examples suggest that disconnection from cultural heritage as well as family conflict related to culture may contribute to vulnerability to involvement in violence in some cases.
• Sexuality: Peer-to-peer female violence can arise in the context of same sex relationships and stem from a lack of support in forming healthy relationships amid ACEs. In relation to criminal and sexual exploitation, it was reported that girls are sometimes exploited by older girls, not just by boys or men.
• Neurodivergence: Examples were given where undiagnosed conditions increase vulnerability to negative associations due to social interaction struggles. Behavioural overlaps were also noted between neurodivergence and trauma responses.

Victimisation and agency

• Complexities of victimisation and agency: Complexities of victimisation and agency were highlighted in the research. Several participants described ways in which girls are victimised through various forms of Violence Against Women and Girls (VAWG). It was also reported by co-creation group participants that engaging in criminal activities and violence can be a means for systematically underserved girls and young women to reclaim their power against a background of social disadvantage and exclusion.
• Victim-perpetrator dynamics: In line with previous research (Billinghurst & Factor 2023), girls can move between being a ‘victim’ and a ‘perpetrator’. Becoming perpetrators can be a coping mechanism and a survival strategy.

Effective support provision

Reported elements of effective support provision include:

• Early intervention and identification: Proactively identifying at-risk girls through multi-agency collaboration and metrics like frequent missing reports.
• Funded specialist gender-informed interventions: Providing safe spaces, gender-informed workers, mental health support, and education on healthy relationships.
• Long-term funding for trauma-informed practice: Consistent care to develop tools that reduce vulnerability to criminal exploitation.
• Culturally informed support: Addressing cultural heritage and needs to deepen trust and respect with practitioners.
• Co-production and asset-based approaches: Involving girls in decision-making in the support they receive and recognising their resilience are considered important ways to empower girls and young women through support.
• Youth-centred spaces: Engaging girls and young women through creative and recreational activities in a safe, youth-centred environment.
• Multi-agency approaches: Comprehensive support through integrated services and a collaborative approach.
• Cross-sector and whole community training: Trauma-informed training across agencies and the wider community to normalise youth-centred approaches.

Recommendations 

For local councils and partner organisations:

• Commissioning: Fund gender specific, trauma-informed, and culturally competent provision with sustainable, long-term, and joined-up models.
• Strategic: Embed integrated approaches among teams, establish coordinated response systems, research local engagement of girls in serious youth violence, and embed training for relevant agencies to promote early intervention.
• Operational: Develop trust-based care models, provide safe youth-centred spaces, and create initiatives addressing childhood trauma.

Recommendations for Central Government

• Increase funding: Increase funding to local councils and community partners for long-term, gender-specific prevention and response services.
• Consult specialist organisations: Ensure that the experiences of girls and young women are fully taken into account in the next Serious Violence Strategy.
• Multidisciplinary support teams in schools: Promote gender specific multidisciplinary support around girls at risk of exclusion from school, including mental health and emotional support.

This research explores the situation facing local councils and partners around girls and young women involved in youth violence, primarily as perpetrators. Although girls are less likely to be involved in violence and crime, and the justice system in comparison to boys, anecdotal reports from local councils have suggested that there are increasing numbers of girls involved in violence. Girls' involvement in violence remains relatively invisible and support services are rarely specifically catered to girls and young women.

This report primarily uses the term ‘involved in violence’ rather than ‘perpetrators of violence’. This is due to complexities identified in the research around the term ‘perpetrator’, and acknowledgement that girls who perpetrate violence have often been subject to violence previously. As such, it is considered important not to label girls as ‘perpetrators’ and instead to explore the complex circumstances that led to them becoming violent and/or involved with violent peer groups or gangs.

This rapid review was commissioned by the Local Government Association (LGA) to develop an understanding of girls involved in violence, aged 10 - 19. The study explores: 

• Trends and patterns in girls' involvement in violence
• Risk factors, causes and drivers
• Elements of effective practice to prevent and reduce girls being involved in violence
• Recommendations that can be considered relevant Boards, at the Local Government Association. 

The review explores overlaps between victimisation and perpetrating violence and covers all forms of violence, not just those covered by the Serious Youth Violence agenda. As such, it explores themes related to peer-on-peer violence in schools and community settings, sporadic acts of violence that are not connected to the peer group, girls' involvement in gangs and its connection with criminal and sexual exploitation.

The research recognises the critical role that local councils play in reducing violence, developing multi-agency approaches, early intervention and provision of support to victims and perpetrators of violence. It aims to document some of the challenges facing Local Authorities in this work and examples of promising practices.

Methodology

ClearView Research was commissioned to undertake this research over a three month period from April - June 2024. The methodology comprised of the following key aspects:

• Lived experience participatory approach: The research was co-created with a group of 6 young women with lived experience of involvement in violence. The group was recruited via our ClearView Research (CVR) community and through invitations to relevant community organisations. The group took part in three sessions that involved them providing expert insight into the themes of the research, co-designing the research tools, and sense checking and challenging research findings. This group will be referred to as the ‘co-creation group’ in the report.
• Literature Review: A literature review was conducted to pull together relevant UK-based literature published within the last 10 years to provide an overview of the nature and extent of girls' involvement in violence and evidence on effective interventions.
• Fieldwork with relevant local council practitioners and partners: An exploration lab (i.e. focus group) was conducted with six professionals who are leading responses to girls involved in violence in their local area. This included five local council representatives across Youth Justice and Child Exploitation teams and one specialist community organisation. Four additional interviews were also conducted with two local council representatives, a specialist community organisation and youth justice organisation in order to deepen learning and develop promising practice case studies.

Limitations of the research

This research is small in scale and designed to capture insights and examples from a select number of local council areas rather than provide a comprehensive picture of the nature and scale of girls’ involvement in violence. Due to the small sample size for the fieldwork, all findings must be taken in context and are not generalisable. 

UK-based literature on the involvement of girls and young women in youth violence is very limited (Billinghurt & Factor 2023). The vast majority of research available focuses on boys and young men, reflecting gender bias in this area of criminological research (Jump & Horan 2024). You can read the summary below and/or the full literature review in the drop-down below. 

Extent of girls’ involvement in violence

This section outlines data on the extent to which girls perpetrate violence. The term ‘involvement in violence’ is used to avoid labelling girls as perpetrators. Given the overlaps between perpetrating violence and being a victim of violence, data is also included on the extent to which girls are victims of criminal exploitation and county lines.

The Justice System assigns proven offences a gravity score, with score band one to four indicating a less serious offence and score band 5 – 8 indicating most serious offence. Data from Youth Justice Board 2022 indicate that 13 per cent of all proven youth offences were committed by girls and 94 per cent of these were in the less serious gravity band score However, these figures do not capture incidents that did not lead to criminalisation, and therefore do not provide a full picture of the scale of crime or violence perpetrated by girls. Mirroring data on men and boys, there are higher rates of arrest and criminalisation of Black and ethnic minority young women compared to white young women due to racialised stereotypes in relation to crime (The Howard League for Penal Reform, 2020; Agenda & Alliance for Youth Justice, 2021).

Following years of campaigns and legal action from organisations over the disproportionate representation of young Black males on the matrix, the Met has stopped using the matrix and will instead use the existing Violence Harm Assessment (VHA) to 'identify and risk assess the most harmful individuals who are involved in violence in London. Similarly, data from Eshalomi 2020, on gang membership and involvement provides an unclear picture. Whilst London Metropolitan’s matrix of alleged gang members for 2019 recorded only six female gang members, research using wider definitions and different methodologies estimate that up to half of gang-involved young people are girls and young women.

In relation to county lines, according to Windle et al 2020 the National Crime Agency suggests that only 9 per cent of county lines offences are recorded for females. A Reasonable Grounds (RG) decision is the first decision made in the National Referral Mechanism (NRM) process, and it determines if there are reasonable grounds to believe someone is a victim of modern slavery or human trafficking. The RG decision is based on the information available at the time, which can be limited to the referral form details. The RG decision aims to be made within five working days (HM Government 2023). The National Referral Mechanism (NRM) collects data on all forms of modern slavery including human trafficking and exploitation. Boys who received a positive RGD were most likely to have been criminally exploited (62 per cent) while girls were most likely to have been sexually exploited (42 per cent). Critics suggest that these figures represent a vast under-reporting and under-identification of girls’ experiences of both county lines and criminal exploitation.

Nature of girls’ involvement in violence

Literature suggests that there are varied ways that girls are involved in violence, including as victims of criminal exploitation, as a survival strategy within the ‘gang’ context, through peer-on-peer violence in school and community settings, and in relation to community and family defence.

Girls experiences of violence, sexual exploitation and abuse in the serious violence context are well documented. However, organisations supporting girls and women at risk suggest that girls’ experiences of child criminal exploitation (CCE) are often overlooked by professionals (Harvard et al 2021, Jump et al 2023). Girls and young women can fluctuate between being a ‘victim’ and ‘perpetrator’ (Billinghurst & Factor 2023, Choak 2018). It can be a survival strategy to put others at risk in order to minimise the abuse and violence they experience themselves (Billinghurst & Factor 2023).

Much of the literature suggests that girls and young women are less likely to identify as gang members than boys and young men and more likely to be drawn in by association with male gang members (Eshalomi 2020). Choak (2018), however, argues that the types of offences that girls are involved with, such as carrying or transporting drugs or weapons, are in fact an essential component of the criminal activity and therefore, girls and young women can take on a central role. Examples are also apparent of girls and young women taking more prominent roles in criminal activity and violence.

Peer-on-peer violence between girls and young women in schools and community settings has also been documented (Jamal et al 2015, Lyere & Akel 2023, No Knives Better Lives 2024). Peer-on-peer violence can be a protective tool to ensure safety and peer group acceptance, a means to police each others’ bodies and sexuality (Jamal et al 2015), and a way to show ‘toughness’ or ‘status’ towards peers (No Knives Better Lives 2024). Peer-on-peer violence can include racist elements as demonstrated in a recent viral video where a young Black school girl was brutally beaten by several white girls with adult onlookers taking no action to intervene in Ashford, Surrey in February 2023  (Lyere & Akel 2023).

A study by Milk, Honey, Bees (Lyere & Akel, 2023) into the experiences of Black girls growing up in Lambeth suggests that ‘loyalty, rules and roles within their communities’ can become central aspects of youth violence for girls and young women. Loyalty and protection of families was also identified as a theme in the recent research by No Knives Better Lives.

The evidence suggests that the impacts of involvement in youth violence tend to be different for girls and young women compared with boys and young men. In particular, researchers highlight that boys and young men are more likely to show visible impacts related to violence such as injury by weapon, and girls and young women are more likely to show long-term psychological damage, trauma, self-harm, suicide idealisation, and substance use (Jump et al 2023). 

Background circumstances

Histories of familial sexual and domestic abuse and neglect, the normalisation of violence in childhood, chaotic home environments, and growing up in care have been identified as background factors for girls becoming involved in violence (Jump et al 2023, Khan et al 2013). Health and educational experiences that accelerate involvement in violence often include poor mental health and experiences of trauma, special educational needs, disability, and disengagement from school (Khan et al 2013, Jump et al 2023). 

Broader structural factors are also linked to girls’ involvement in violence, including poverty and low socio-economic status, patriarchal structures, reductions to public funding and austerity, institutionalised racism, and lack of gender-specific service provision for girls and young women (Jump et al 2023). Black and ethnic minority girls and young women have been identified as disproportionately affected by these broader structural factors due to higher levels of social disenfranchisement and poverty, alongside wider contextual inequalities (Billinghurst & Factor 2023; Bridge, 2021).

Service responses

Girls and young women frequently do not receive the support they need to prevent further victimisation, recover from their experiences or prevent the perpetration of violence and crime (Billinghurst & Factor 2023). Gender stereotypes contribute to a lack of identification: with girls often portrayed as passive victims, the ways in which they might become involved in violence and crime are not often identified (Choak 2018). Black girls are especially subject to ‘adultification’ by professionals, which is a form of racial bias that leads to Black girls being treated as adults rather than children and being less likely to receive adequate support (Jump et al 2023, CHSCP 2022, Lyere & Akel 2023). The literature shows that gender-specific and culturally informed interventions are needed to identify, prevent and address girls’ involvement in youth violence (Jump et al 2023). 

This section presents the key findings from fieldwork activities with local council practitioners, partner organisations, and the co-creation group. It highlights: 

• The current trends that local councils and partners are noticing in relation to girls' involvement in violence. 
• Perceptions of root causes and drivers.
• The way in which intersectionality plays out in girls' experiences and service responses.
• Themes relating to victimisation and agency in the violence context.
• Key elements of effective support provision. 

Trends observed by local councils

Reports of increase in assaults on frontline workers

An emerging trend reported by practitioners is an increase in assaults by girls on frontline workers including emergency workers such as the police, ambulance workers and social workers. This is attributed to pent-up anger and feelings of being let down by professionals in the past, suggesting a violent reaction to authority figures is a result of girls perceiving them to be a threat. 

There's certainly something for us around the assault of emergency workers. A massive correlation between young women who have been prosecuted and sometimes put through the courts, essentially for assaulting police officers, ambulance workers, etc. So that's a really defined spike that we've noticed” (Youth Services Manager).

Low-level crime and violence with some reports of increased severity

Local council participants primarily reported that girls tend to commit low-level crimes and violence, such as shoplifting, Actual Bodily Harm (ABH), and common assault. Whilst some local councils reported an increase in the severity of violence committed by girls, others did not, suggesting local differences.

The amount of girls that come through is increasing, and the seriousness of the offence(s) is also increasing” (Youth Justice Practitioner)

Shoplifting was highlighted by a co-creation group member as an important step for girls in ‘testing the waters’ or ‘feeling like a boss’, which sometimes precedes further involvement in crime or violence.

Joint enterprise and exploitation

In the Serious Youth Violence context, a significant theme is the concept of joint enterprise, where girls are often 'used' by boys to commit acts of violence. Practitioners described situations where girls would lure boys or men into locations where they would be attacked by other boys or men. Exploitation links closely with girls’ involvement, indicating they are often manipulated into violence rather than acting as primary perpetrators.

What we do tend to find when we look at serious youth violence…It tends to be, where the male perpetrators use the females to lure and bring those other males to certain areas where they're set up to be assaulted or attacked…But what these girls don't realise is obviously this falls into joint enterprise” (Youth Justice Practitioner).

Differing perceptions of girls and criminal exploitation

Some local council representatives did not perceive girls to commonly be victims of criminal exploitation whereas others did. This may reflect geographical differences in patterns of criminal exploitation and/or challenges in identifying girls in this context. Echoing research by Choak which highlighted the central roles that girls can play in the ‘gang’ context, one participant reflected that gangs can’t operate without female involvement. This participant suggested that girls are victims of criminal exploitation and also can turn to exploiting others as a survival strategy, reflecting previous research.

They are exploited in terms of being used for storing drugs, storing and carrying weapons…That area of exploitation and criminality is not being noticed. When you talk about serious youth and gang violence, it's typically males that are brought to attention. In my experience, a lot of those gangs can't operate without female counterparts: exploiting [them] but also turning that exploitation around and also exploiting others” (Criminal Exploitation Practitioner).

Peer group violence

Several practitioners noted the peer group as a particular context for girls’ participation in violence. This included female peer-on-peer violence within school and community settings, often with violence being filmed and shared on social media. Participation in violent acts can be a means for girls to gain credibility, social acceptance and establish their identity within peer groups. 

“It's coming as a result of their friends and the friends that they are keeping because they're trying to explore their identity. And if that means that they're having to do certain things, to find themselves recognised by particular groups, then that is what they are prepared or willing to do.” (Serious Violence and Exploitation Practitioner)

Echoing the literature Eshalomi 2020, practitioners report that girls tend not to regard violence in the peer group context as ‘gang’ activity. Participants reflected that whether a person perceives themselves to belong to a ‘gang’ is often subjective, depending on the mindset of the young person. 

When we talk, especially to our young females, they will say to you, “I'm not in a gang, I don't have an association to a gang, but I just have my group of people” (Serious Violence and Exploitation Practitioner).

One practitioner suggested that within her local area conflict between girls is in part driven by internalised misogyny which leads to girls policing each others’ looks and sexual behaviour.

“Girls are sort of judging each other on those standards as well and you can only get it right to a certain point before the girls will say: “she looks too slutty”, “she's probably trying to compete with me sexually”. And that can lead to conflict.” (Youth Justice Practitioner)

Perceived root causes and drivers of violence

Childhood trauma

Many of the girls and young women supported by the practitioners we spoke with have experienced Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs). Many of them are in care; they have experiences of family breakdowns, parent-child conflict, parents who misuse substances, and a history of domestic and sexual abuse. One community organisation reported that as many as 90 per cent of the girls they work with have experienced sexual abuse.

Practitioners suggested that these experiences are the root cause of vulnerability to violence both as a victim and a perpetrator. Experiences of childhood trauma are the basis of violent response to perceived threats.

So most of our girls’ trauma response is fight. And that's where a lot of incidents escalate and that's when they become violent” (Specialist Community Practitioner)

Practitioners also reflected that childhood trauma alongside a lack of understanding of how to develop and nurture healthy and safe romantic relationships can lead girls to be vulnerable to exploitative relationships and ultimately criminal and sexual exploitation.

“These gang members that exploit them, they trauma bond with them first, so they make them feel like “I understand your pain more than anybody else in your life”. Once you get a young woman who's been through a lot, once you make her feel like you understand her pain more than anybody else in her life, she's willing to do anything for that connection, for that sense of belonging, for that relationship, and then exploitation starts." (Specialist Community Practitioner).

Poverty, cost of living crisis and the pandemic

Practitioners suggested that the recent trends observed in increased violence perpetrated by girls may relate to increased economic insecurity as well as the impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic.

Participants suggest that economic deprivation puts pressures and stress on families which impacts children and that these challenges have been made worse by the cost-of-living crisis. There are perceptions that within this context, alongside the social isolation and lack of school attendance during the pandemic, parents have been less able to provide a nurturing home environment and girls have spent more time on the streets and in contexts where offending or violence is encouraged or normalised. 

“Families drinking at home, more domestic violence, stress through not being able to afford rent, that kind of stuff, homelessness worries. So, that kind of parental stress and pressure and conflict stuff sort of feeds down into what's going on with young people.” (Youth Justice Practitioner)

Negative experiences of authority

Participants we spoke with consistently discussed negative experiences of authority figures including the police, teachers, and social workers as an important contributing factor for both victimisation and perpetrating violence. Participants in the co-creation group and practitioner group reported that services and agencies frequently react to anger and violence by girls and young women with punitive measures, rather than understanding the behaviour as a symptom of trauma which requires a supportive, trauma-informed response. Practitioners reflected that these experiences can lead girls and young women to mistrust agencies, instead seeking support through peer groups and relationships. 

 And it's that impact of the first experience of institutions, education, and the police, that can create a situation where that young person now just views any authority as totally against them, and more likely to kind of gravitate towards the peer groups who necessarily may not be doing the right thing, but they feel more supported there." (Criminal Exploitation Practitioner)

Furthermore, practitioners cited negative experiences of authority figures as a key driver for the recent increase in assaults on emergency workers that some local councils have observed.

“They're getting frustrated with the social workers or the police, and then they're just having an outburst.” (Youth Justice Practitioner)

School experiences

The practitioners we spoke to reflected that systemic shortcomings focused on disciplinary action for misbehaviour, alongside a lack of training and resources, mean that schools are unable to provide the intensity of care needed for some children. Often, this results in school exclusions and girls being sent to pupil referral units (PRUs). One practitioner had the perception that girls who display violence are more likely to be permanently excluded than boys.

For me, there is something around, schools tend to treat girls who display violence on-site or outside in the community in a more strict way. So I think they'll be quicker to be permanently excluded.” (Youth Justice Practitioner)

Practitioners suggested that educational exclusion can intersect with heightened risks of exploitation and criminal behaviour due to girls and young women not being in educational and training settings during the day and exposed to negative associations outside of these settings.

“We also found that girls that go to PRUs are more likely to be criminalised and end up in prison than boys as well.” (Specialist Community Practitioner)

However, transformative potential also exists within schools, exemplified by one co-creation group participant’s journey of school exclusion followed by supportive mentoring in the school she attended after. The support and understanding she received from education staff later enabled her to attend a good university and positive life outcomes.

The care system

The practitioners we spoke to highlighted that negative experiences of care placements contributed to girls’ vulnerability to engagement in youth violence. Without access to good quality, long-term placements, girls may experience ongoing trauma and a lack of safe space to process their experiences.

“Because some of our girls are in care, they experience ongoing trauma, they don't really have safe spaces where they can speak about that. All of the built -up anger comes out, whether it be within the home or at PRUs, or even community” (Specialist Community Practitioner).

Intersectionality

Intersectionality was highlighted by the co-creation group as an important lens for understanding the experiences of girls and young women involved in youth violence. Gendered experiences and stereotypes intersect with additional aspects of identity including race, culture, sexuality, and neurodivergence to shape the life experiences and trajectories of girls who become involved or/exploited through youth violence, as well as the ways in which services respond. Whilst there are additional elements to intersectionality, the themes relate to those which were discussed in this research.

Race

Practitioners and co-creation group participants expressed that there is often a racial and cultural bias at play when it concerns young women and girls’ engagement with police and in schools. One practitioner stated that police services’ willingness to deploy safeguarding measures for girls identified to be at risk of sexual exploitation can be dependent on the race of the child.

“A lot of questions are put back on [Black] young women, whereas when it's a White girl, it's more ‘okay, how can we safeguard her to get her away from these people?’” (Specialist Community Practitioner).

Participants also discussed the case of Child Q in Hackney, where a teacher falsely accused a Black student of possession of cannabis and called the police, who then stripped and searched her. She was found innocent after a violating experience with the police. This example illustrates adultification bias experienced by black girls, which results in the intersection of gender and racial discrimination by both school staff and police.

Culture

In the co-creation group, one participant said that children from multicultural backgrounds can face conflicts within their home with parents due to the cultural differences that emerge from the children being raised in Britain, and their parents being raised in another country. Practitioners also reflected that lack of connection to cultural heritage, especially for Black girls growing up in care in predominantly White areas, can heighten vulnerability to exploitation and criminal behaviour.

“A (Black) child growing up in care who's left in a sort of fragmented relationship [with their Black father] growing up in a White community without any sort of positive role models around Black identity can be more vulnerable… All of this plays out into different types of exploitation or different types of behaviour.” (Youth Services Manager).

Sexuality

A few of the participants highlighted how sexuality intersects with experiences of trauma to shape the experiences of some girls. One practitioner pointed out that girls are sometimes exploring their queer identities within their friendship groups. In some cases, rifts in friendships and intimate relationships alongside girls’ previous experiences of childhood abuse can create the conditions that lead to peer-on-peer violence between girls. 

That's definitely something we see in our girls as well, because of the trauma that they've had growing up, they cannot understand because they haven't ever seen those positive relationships growing up…So we can have a group of girls and within a group of say about eight girls, we have got, like three different relationships going on. They're all relationships with each other.” (Serious Violence and Exploitation Practitioner).

In relation to criminal and sexual exploitation, another participant noted that girls are sometimes exploited or manipulated by older girls, not just by boys or men.

“When it comes to exploitation and stuff, we do talk about it from the perspective of older  guys and men, but a lot of our girls bond and manipulate each other as well. A lot of our girls have met older girls or another girl who's in care and in a different borough, she's introduced her to a different set of people, different criminal activity, or whatever, and then it spiralled from there.” (Specialist Community Practitioner).

Neurodivergence

Girls can have undiagnosed forms of neurodivergence, such as ADHD and autism, which can lead to difficulty making friends and lead to forming negative associations. However, one practitioner was concerned that trauma responses and forms of neurodivergence have behavioural overlaps, and it is important for practitioners working with children to develop an understanding of their specific coping mechanisms.

With those ACEs (Adverse Childhood Experiences), there's a lot of attachment issues there. But they're misinterpreted as, "oh they must have ADHD" or they're just misinterpreted as "oh, that they're naughty children" or you know, "they don't want to listen", "they're defiant". They're this, they're that. And actually, it's for a lot of those girls, their coping mechanisms." (Youth Justice Practitioner)

A participant in the co-creation group highlighted overlaps between neurodivergence and race, with Black girls less likely to receive a diagnosis and for the diagnosis to be taken into account by relevant professionals.

“Neurodivergence is linked to race and to violence and the support you get is different.” (Co-creation Group Participant)

Victimisation, agency and resilience

Complexities of victimisation and agency were highlighted throughout the research. Whilst several participants described ways in which girls are victimised through various forms of Violence Against Women and Girls (VAWG), a co-creation group participant emphasised the importance of not equating girl’s experiences with exploitation and abuse alone, ensuring that the full range of experiences of girls are included and that all girls can access support. Co-creation group participants reflected that engaging in criminal activities and violence can be a means for systematically underserved girls and young women to reclaim their power against a background of social disadvantage and exclusion and are not only the result of being exploited or controlled by male perpetrators.

As in previous research, practitioners also reflected that girls can move between being a ‘victim’ and a ‘perpetrator’, with girls sometimes perpetrating crime or violence in order to protect themselves and to build self-esteem against a background of social exclusion and disempowerment.

“Although the girls have at one point in their lives been victims, they do also become perpetrators themself. That is a pattern that we do see within our girls as they get older… We've had girls who've been permanently excluded from school, they've been socially isolated, because of certain things that they've been through and how they've responded to the things that they've been throughout their lives. And the only way they know to build their self-esteem is to make themselves useful to another man, is to go out and do county lines.” (Specialist Community Practitioner)

Co-creation group participants also noted the resilience of girls who have been involved in youth violence and the importance of not being treated as weak, passive or as a ‘victim’ by professionals.

“[I don’t want professionals] being too emotional in speech or babying me or treating me as a victim. But just ..."ok so this happened...this is what we can do about it...is there anything else you would like us to do?” (Co-creation Group Participant).

“Although the girls have at one point in their lives been victims, they do also become perpetrators themself. That is a pattern that we do see within our girls as they get older… We've had girls who've been permanently excluded from school, they've been socially isolated, because of certain things that they've been through and how they've responded to the things that they've been throughout their lives. And the only way they know to build their self-esteem is to make themselves useful to another man, is to go out and do county lines.” (Specialist Community Practitioner)

Co-creation group participants also noted the resilience of girls who have been involved in youth violence and the importance of not being treated as weak, passive or as a ‘victim’ by professionals.

“[I don’t want professionals] being too emotional in speech or babying me or treating me as a victim. But just ..."ok so this happened...this is what we can do about it...is there anything else you would like us to do?” (Co-creation Group Participant).

Elements of effective service provision

Elements of effective service provision highlighted in the research include: processes for early identification; funded specialist interventions; long-term funding for trauma-informed practice; culturally informed support; co-production and asset-based approaches; child-centred spaces; multi-agency working; and cross-sector training.

Early intervention and identification

Practitioners highlighted the importance of early intervention to identify those who need support before they have committed a violent offence and/or before they have been criminally or sexually exploited. 

One practitioner proposed that a key indicator for early intervention is those who have been reported missing from home/care for long periods of time and multiple times within a month. This approach to identification is facilitated by a specialist contextual safeguarding team that has access to all the Missing data.

 It's basically a static measure to capture the children that are most likely to go missing either for long periods or frequent periods or both and then you get a cohort of about 20 children as opposed to the much larger cohort. They're the ones you want to make sure you've got the right resources around” (Youth Services Manager).

Health services and hotels were considered additional important spheres where girls at risk of exploitation and/or involvement in violence might be identified, suggesting the need for cross-agency training and collaboration.

“We have monthly meetings with the local A&E. So if there is a report of a young person coming in where she looks like she's been punched, or she's got a fracture on her face, or she stated that she's got into a fight, they will share that information with us. So in that sense, I would say that identification from A&E and health is quite good.” (Youth Justice Practitioner)

Funded specialist gender-informed interventions

Overall many participants emphasised the importance of specialist focused interventions that target the needs of the young women and girls they work with. This means facilitating access to safe spaces and prioritising mental health, mentoring opportunities and education on healthy relationships.

“We've used some of that [funding] to employ a specialist female group work provision and that then looks very different from traditional group work…So this is about having a safe space for the particular issues for young women” (Youth Services Manager)

Co-creation group members highlighted the importance of interventions which enable girls and young women to build their self-esteem, to recognise the impact of childhood abuse and overcome trauma.

“[It’s about] creating self-esteem to overcome the trauma and be deserving of healthy love” (Co-creation Group Participant).

Several practitioners expressed the necessity for dedicated community-based organisations for underserved young women and girls at risk or engaged in youth violence.

Long term funding for trauma-informed practice

Both practitioners and co-creation group participants highlighted that services for young women and girls need to be trauma-informed, and that there is a necessity for long-term engagement with young women and girls. This is because girls and young women with ACEs may have never had experiences of long-term, consistent care to create a nurturing and supportive environment for them to develop the tools to be stable and recognise negative associations that make them vulnerable to engage in youth violence and to be exploited. 

Culturally informed support

Understanding and responding to girls’ and young women’s cultural backgrounds is deemed crucial for effective engagement. This means providing opportunities to explore cultural heritage and address cultural needs.

“I want you to tell me, "what kind of food is it that you eat at home? Is there anything that you don't like? Is there anything in particular that you do like?" Now, for me, I'm starting to have those conversations. They're quite simple conversations, but I'm showing that young female, that number one, I'm interested in getting to know their thoughts, their feelings, hearing their voice, but it's also that element of care.” (Youth Justice Practitioner)

Co-production and asset-based approaches

Opportunities for girls and young women to choose what their intervention will look like through co-creation were highlighted as an effective way to ensure the support is appropriate and relevant. Examples include selecting the practitioners they work with:

So they've got like a leaflet based on all the different types of social workers: Their interest, their approaches with working with the kids, and then a young person with their child and family assessor, can pick the social worker they want. Which I think has worked really well for us.” (Youth Justice Practitioner).

Co-creation group participants also reflected on the importance of support which recognises girls’ resilience, builds on their assets, and focuses on empowerment.

Child-centred spaces including recreation and creativity

Participants noted the importance of access to safe, youth-friendly spaces as contexts for interventions, as well as engagement and recreational activities that use creativity.

“You make it look like a youth-friendly process in which they can do their safeguarding work. But [the young people can] enjoy themselves and have a hot meal and maybe do some cooking, get a haircut or get their nails done or have a shower.” (Youth Services Manager)

Multi-Agency approaches

The multi-agency approach integrates various perspectives, methods, interventions, and initiatives to provide comprehensive support for young women and girls vulnerable to exploitation and involvement in youth violence. Several participants emphasised the importance of leveraging partnerships to level up resources for young women at risk of youth violence and exploitation as well as those who are already involved. 

The co-creation group supported the idea of a whole community approach which includes relevant community organisations.

Co-location of services, integrating teams, and offering access to a range of services ‘under one roof’ were deemed effective ways to support engagement of girls in relevant support services.

Service alignment was highlighted as an important aspect of effective multi-agency working, with relevant services taking the time to build a shared ethos, approach, and understanding. One community organisation uses a shadowing approach to create its multi-agency approach, developing mutual understanding and working relationships across organisations and knowledge sharing.

Panels incorporating police, child exploitation teams, youth justice teams, health services, and other relevant agencies were cited as taking an important role in multi-agency working, providing a forum to discuss Risk Outside The Home (ROTH) safeguarding concerns and to implement a coordinated response.

Cross-sector and whole community training

Practitioners frequently reflected that training is needed to embed a trauma-informed approach across relevant agencies. Participants described in-house training in Youth Justice teams to bring about a cultural shift in how both girls and boys are responded to. Practitioners and co-creation group participants both shared concerns as to the extent to which the police can take a trauma-informed approach. However, due to the nature of police often being first responders, efforts to support police services to become trauma-aware and more child-centred are deemed important by practitioners.

I think only specialised services can have that expert knowledge on how to engage with these girls. But I do think that, like educational settings, policing services, and stuff like that, they can be a lot more trauma-responsive and trauma-aware” (Specialist Community Practitioner).

Practitioners also advocated for training that goes beyond the relevant agencies that young people interact with to include the wider community and local businesses:

“Hotel staff are not trained on what to do if they see a young person coming in and she could be at risk of sexual exploitation. They're not knowing her age and not checking her ID. Training needs to be offered to everyone that comes across young people.” (Youth Justice Practitioner)

Daddyless Daughters - Addressing childhood trauma 

The Daddyless Daughters Project CIC focuses on providing support for girls and young women who have been affected by family breakdown, abuse and adversity which often leaves them vulnerable to being affected by youth violence and exploitation. The core of their work has a strong emphasis on addressing childhood trauma and complex behaviour patterns. They operate across London and Reading, assisting girls and young women who have faced domestic abuse, childhood sexual abuse, and exploitation. Their approach is deeply rooted in trauma-informed care and community-based support systems.

Sister Squad Service 

The Sister Squad service at Daddyless Daughters targets the most vulnerable and underserved young women and girls across London, identified as at risk for criminal or sexual exploitation. This programme is structured around three core elements: lived experience, research, and trauma-informed practice. Each participant is matched with an outreach mentor who not only understands their experiences but also brings professional expertise from previous roles in the criminal justice system, children services, education and youth work. Mentors engage the girls in tailored support that includes physical activities designed to address trauma responses and complex behavioural patterns. 

In just six months, Daddyless Daughters supported a 13-year-old to transform her life through intensive mentoring. The girl had experienced severe traumas which led her to being placed in care and caused her to be moved around the country often living in residential children homes and foster placements. This affected her gaining access to full-time education and settling into a community.  Through Sister Squad, she was able to settle into a stable children's home, return to school and is now fully engaged in education as well as extracurricular activities. Her missing episodes and encounters with the police have significantly declined and she is working towards sitting her exams for the first time.

And now she's in full-time education back at school...She's also in cadets now as well. So, she's doing extracurricular activities. Her life is very stable and calm at the moment."

Youth Advisory Board: Engaging Young Women’s Leadership 

The Youth Advisory Board (YAB) at Daddyless Daughters plays a crucial role in organisational decision-making and project oversight. Composed of young women with lived experience of youth violence, the YAB leads initiatives such as fundraisers and actively participates in hiring processes, ensuring that the organisation remains rooted in the perspectives and needs of those it serves.

Advocating for Systemic Change 

Advocating for systemic change, Daddyless Daughters calls for sustained funding and policy reform to address the impact of adverse childhood experiences on a national level. Their vision includes lobbying for the establishment of a Young Women's and Girls Secretary of State to champion these issues.

In summary, Daddyless Daughters utilises a comprehensive approach combining trauma informed mentoring through the Sister Squad service, youth leadership via the YAB, and advocacy for systemic change to support young women and girls affected by youth violence and trauma.

The ways in which girls and young women participate in violence are complex and varied. This research has highlighted some recent, local trends identified by a sample of local councils, including an increase in sporadic assaults on frontline workers, peer group violence between girls in school and community contexts, and some of the ways in which girls become involved in criminality through exploitation. 

Experiences of childhood trauma including sexual abuse and domestic violence are frequently highlighted as a root cause of girls’ involvement in violence. The research suggests that, for some girls, these experiences have interacted with increased economic insecurity at home and lack of educational participation during the COVID-19 pandemic, to heighten girls’ vulnerability both to victimisation and to perpetrating violence in recent years.

The findings suggest that the extent to which girls’ emotional presentations and behaviour are understood as a symptom of trauma by relevant professionals they encounter can be crucial in shaping their trajectories towards or away from violence. Reactive and punitive responses by frontline workers (including police, social workers and education staff) towards girls who present as angry or aggressive can create the conditions whereby girls are re-traumatised and become mistrustful of agencies and authority figures. It is these experiences which have been cited as drivers for both assaults on frontline workers and girls’ vulnerability to ‘trauma bonding’ with older men (or women) as a basis for criminal and sexual exploitation. 

Educational settings and the care system were highlighted as particularly important contexts which shape girls’ trajectories. Findings suggest that system-wide challenges mean that girls frequently do not receive the care and support they need in these settings to prevent involvement in violence.

Peer-on-peer violence between girls is another important form of violence highlighted in the research. This can result from girls exploring their identity and sense of belonging in relation to peer group identities, social pressures to exemplify toughness, and be shaped by misogynistic narratives which encourage conflict between girls. Further research is needed to understand the circumstances and dynamics which lead to female peer-on-peer violence in more depth.

Gendered experiences and stereotypes intersect with additional aspects of identity including race, culture, sexuality, and neurodivergence to shape the life experiences and trajectories of girls who become involved or/exploited through youth violence, as well as the ways in which services respond. In particular, the research consistently highlights examples of ways in which Black and ethnic minority girls are subject to disadvantage and discriminatory treatment by relevant agencies. This includes ‘adultification bias’ whereby Black and ethnic minority girls who perpetrate violence are more likely to be treated as adults rather than children and are less likely to receive a trauma-informed response and safeguarding support. 

Overlaps with violence against women and girls (VAWG) are evident, with girls’ experiences of involvement in violence often shaped by experiences of sexual exploitation and interpersonal violence. Our co-creation group, however, highlighted that this is not always the case and further research is needed to understand the complexities of victimisation and agency for girls in relation to perpetrating violence in different contexts. All girls deserve access to relevant, long-term, tailored support to explore and process the root causes that led to involvement in/perpetrating violence, and to build a positive sense of identity and self-esteem.

For local councils and partner organisations

Commissioning

• Fund specific girls and young women’s workers and group provision which specialises in gender and trauma-informed working and cultural competence.
• Commission more sustainable, joined-up funding models that support ongoing long-term intervention and prevention efforts, including those led by specialist community organisations.

Strategic

• Embed integrated approaches between all teams in local councils that work with young people involved in/affected by youth violence (including youth offending, criminal exploitation and contextual safeguarding teams) in order to blend resources and offer integrated service opportunities.
• To complement existing duties for multi-agency collaboration and any new duties to collaborate, there should be rationalisation of the processes and funding to achieve these outcomes. This should be based on strengthening the working relationship between Community Safety Partnerships and Police and Crime Commissioners (PCCs) whilst ensuring continued and strengthened working with schools and community organisations. This would strengthen multi-agency partnership approaches to working with girls and young women. Funding would be required from the Central Government to local councils to implement the approach.
• Under the Serious Violence Duty, Community Safety Partnerships should conduct research specifically into the ways in which girls interact with serious youth violence in their local area and ensure that the experiences and support needs of girls are catered to. This may include researching ways in which girls are criminally exploited as well as sexually exploited.
• For early intervention, explore the use of Missing data to identify those most at risk and put resources in place to support them. Embed training and partnerships with health services, schools and relevant community spaces and businesses so that they are able to identify girls at risk of exploitation and/or involvement in violence.
• Develop knowledge and training for all relevant professionals on the ways that girls from Black and ethnic minority backgrounds are systematically discriminated against in relation to youth violence, including awareness of ‘adultification’ in relation to crime and violence.
• Develop gender specific approaches to reduce disengagement from schools and reduce exclusion rates of girls, including multidisciplinary support for those most at risk of exclusion.

Operational

• Develop models of intervention based on a consistent care model prioritising trust and long-term relationships between specialist workers and girls/young women, led by a gender, culture and trauma informed worker. Ensure support is persistently offered and not conditional on meeting certain criteria.
• Ensure access to safe, child-centred physical support spaces as a basis for building rapport and trust with relevant professionals and co-locating support services to facilitate access.
• Develop therapeutic prevention initiatives that address the traumatic impacts of childhood sexual abuse and domestic violence, support girls to understand positive and negative relationships, and safely explore their identity, peer relationships and develop a healthy sense of self-esteem.

For Central Government

• Increase funding to local councils and community partners specifically to develop meaningful, long-term, gender-specific prevention and response services for girls involved in/affected by youth violence. The recommendations for local councils cannot be undertaken without adequate funding from the Central Government.
• Consult with specialist organisations to ensure that the experiences of girls and young women are fully taken into account in the next Serious Violence Strategy, including the ways in which girls are criminally exploited.
• Department for Education to promote multidisciplinary support teams around girls at risk of exclusion from school and girls at risk of exploitation, including mental health and emotional support.